Amboli, located at the northernmost point of the Malabar region, has recently gained recognition as one of Maharashtra’s and India’s premier biodiversity hotspots. Known as the wettest place in Maharashtra, Amboli experiences substantial rainfall, particularly in June, when it receives around 3500 mm, surpassing even Cherrapunjee. This climate fosters rapid reproduction among various frog species, many of which are endemic to Amboli.
These frogs breed throughout the monsoon and mysteriously vanish once the rains cease. At night, each frog species produce distinctive mating calls, creating a cacophony. This abundance of frogs also attracts predators like snakes, which thrive in this rich environment.
Monsoon transforms Amboli into a misty, moss-covered landscape where trees and roads seem shrouded in clouds. The mist clears only during intense downpours. Photographing amphibians and reptiles in Amboli in this period is exhilarating and challenging at once, especially at night when it rains.
Recently, I went on a 3-day herping expedition in Amboli, guided by Vipul Ramanuj, a skilled wildlife photographer and an avid herpetologist. Amidst relentless monsoon rains, armed with rain gear, sturdy boots, waterproof equipment, powerful torches, cameras fitted with light diffusers, and a palpable sense of excitement, we courageously ventured through the damp, misty darkness of the forest, looking for frogs and snakes. And we successfully photographed some stunning local species.
Identifying the species after our photography sessions proved to be the most challenging aspect of herping. My travel companion and co-blogger Latha Prabhakaran sought guidance from Drs. Muhammed Jafar Palot and Sameer Kumar Pati of the Zoological Survey of India, as well as Dr. Sandeep Das, a herpetologist, to ensure accurate identification and gather information for our blog article.
Here, I will share the species I photographed during this trip. The magical touch to the photos is in no small part thanks to Vipul’s photography tips, particularly on the art of backlighting.
Malabar pit viper
The Malabar pit viper (Craspedocephalus malabaricus) is a colourful and venomous snake found in the Western Ghats of southwestern India. It inhabits lush rainforests near hill streams, camouflaging with bright hues and intricate patterns. Its robust body and prehensile tail aid in arboreal navigation, and its long retractable fangs prevent self-injury and facilitate consuming large prey.
As an ambush predator, it consumes frogs, lizards, nestling birds, musk shrews, and mice. Striking with incredible speed, the viper ejects a venom rich in neurotoxins and hemotoxins, quickly immobilizing the prey by damaging their nervous system and blood cells.
Unlike most snakes, the Malabar pit viper is ovoviviparous; that is, the female produces eggs, which hatch inside the female, giving birth to live young,—a parental behaviour unusual in reptiles. And the male has been observed guarding the offspring.
Pit vipers have heat-sensing pits on their head to detect prey, hence the name. These snakes come in different colours (green, yellow, or brown), or morphs.
Bamboo pit viper
The bamboo pit viper (Craspedocephalus gramineus) inhabits forests in peninsular India. It excels in camouflage, with green, brown, and yellow scales, making it nearly invisible to prey and predators. Its slender body glides through branches effortlessly—an adaptation for arboreal life.
Nocturnal, it detects rodents, birds, and lizards under cover of darkness, maximizing hunting success and avoiding daytime heat. Ambushing its prey, it strikes swiftly, and its long hinged fangs eject a potent hemotoxic and neurotoxic venom, affecting the blood and nerve tissues of the prey.
Unlike typical snakes, it births live young, enhancing offspring protection.
Northern Western Ghats vine snake
The northern Western Ghats vine snake (Ahaetulla borealis) is a tree snake endemic to the northern Western Ghats of India. Once considered conspecific with A. nasuta, now endemic to Sri Lanka, A. borealis is among the most widespread Ahaetulla species in the Western Ghats.
The vine snake is slender and medium-sized. Its distinctive green coloration and the long, pointed snout provide camouflage among foliage. Its elongated, laterally compressed body is adapted for arboreal life.
Being diurnal, it is active during the day, feeding mainly on small vertebrates like birds, lizards, and frogs. It uses camouflage to ambush prey and can inflate its body to appear larger when threatened.
The species is oviparous, laying eggs in hidden, protected locations. The eggs hatch into fully formed juvenile snakes.
Khaire’s black shieldtail
Khaire’s black shieldtail (Melanophidium khairei) is a distinctive burrowing snake
endemic to the Western Ghats of India. Named after Neelimkumar Khaire, a noted herpetologist, it is known for its glossy, iridescent black coloration and unique tail shield.
Up to 55 cm long, this snake is uniformly cylindrical with a small rounded head not wider than its neck, enhancing its sleek profile. Its underside has scales marked with bold white edges. The tail, short and slightly compressed, ends in a terminal scale bearing two ridges and two points .
Primarily fossorial, this snake spends most of its life underground, rarely surfacing. Adapted for its secretive lifestyle, it hunts earthworms and small invertebrates using keen senses of smell and touch. It is nonvenomous.
Amboli caecilian
The Amboli caecilian (Gegeneophis danieli) was discovered near Amboli in the Western Ghats. This species of caecilian (a group of limbless, serpentine amphibians) was identified from a single specimen. It is notable for numerous secondary annuli not restricted to the posterior body half, distinguishing it from other Indian caeciliids.
They inhabit moist, forested regions with leaf litter and soil, and lead a subterranean lifestyle. They rarely surface, feeding on small invertebrates like insects and worms in soil.
Tiger toad
The tiger toad (Xanthophryne tigerina) is native to the Western Ghats of India, specifically near Amboli, Maharashtra. It features a vibrant yellow or orange body with black markings, warning predators of its toxic skin. Primarily nocturnal, it hunts small invertebrates like insects and worms at night, using its sticky tongue. By day, it hides to avoid predators and harsh conditions.
The tiger toad breeds during the monsoon in temporary rainwater pools. Males call to attract females. Females lay about 30–35 eggs per clutch, and tadpoles develop in the pools.
This toad is confined to a single location, hence critically endangered. Habitat loss due to deforestation, iron mining, and new road construction threatens its survival.
Jaladhara skittering frog
The Jaladhara skittering frog (Euphlyctis jaladhara) inhabits small water bodies. Initially spotted in freshwater bodies near the Thattekad Bird Sanctuary in Ernakulam (Kerala), it has since been found along the western coastal plains from Kerala to Gujarat.
Its diet consists mainly of aquatic and terrestrial insects, as well as other small invertebrates. It may also consume small fish and tadpoles.
As an amphibian, it links aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates and is highly susceptible to water pollution. Unlike better-protected forest amphibians, this frog needs special conservation because of its unique habitat between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats foothills.
Malabar gliding frog
The Malabar gliding frog (Rhacophorus malabaricus) is a tree frog native to the Western Ghats of India. Known for gliding, it uses toe webbing to break its fall, leaping 9–12 metres, about 115 times its body length.
This frog inhabits forests, plantations, and urban areas, often found on tree leaves near streams. During breeding season, it moves to tree branches overhanging water bodies, where the female lays eggs. The tadpoles hatch and drop into the water to continue their lifecycle.
Gliding enhances its survival in the dense forests of the Western Ghats, allowing it to navigate between trees and avoid ground predators. Its presence in diverse habitats highlights its resilience and adaptability in both natural and human-altered landscapes.
Indian dot frog
The Indian dot frog (Uperodon mormorata) is a species of narrow-mouthed frog endemic to the Western Ghats of India. Previously placed in the genus Ramanella, this species has now been reclassified under the genus Uperodon.
The dot frog is small, and has a distinctive dotted pattern on its skin, hence its common name, the Indian dot frog. The base colour is usually brown or grey with darker spots. It is often found in moist, shaded areas.
Primarily nocturnal, it can often be heard calling during the night, especially during the monsoon when it is most active. It feeds on small invertebrates, primarily insects, which it catches using its sticky tongue.
Breeding occurs during the monsoon. Females lay eggs in temporary water bodies formed by the monsoon rains. The tadpoles develop in these water bodies until they metamorphose into frogs.
The Indian dot frog is near threatened. Its primary threats include habitat loss due to deforestation and agricultural expansion. Pollution and pesticide use also affect its survival.
Amboli leaping frog
The Amboli leaping frog (Indirana chiravasi) is endemic to the Western Ghats of India, specifically from laterite plateaus near Amboli, Maharashtra.
These frogs inhabit crevices in laterite boulders. Males often call from wet rocks or moss-covered boulders. Females are found under logs in forests and roadside stones. Active primarily during the monsoon, they breed and lay eggs on moist surfaces near water bodies. Tadpoles develop in water, undergoing metamorphosis into terrestrial adults.
Although classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, this species faces significant threat from habitat loss and indiscriminate use of pesticides. Climate change also endangers its survival, potentially disrupting the crucial monsoon climate necessary for breeding.
Bombay bush frog eggs
The Bombay bush frog (Raorchestes bombayensis) is a species of shrub frog endemic to the Western Ghats of India.
Unlike many other frogs, the bush frog exhibits direct development—that is, the eggs hatch directly into froglets, bypassing the tadpole stage. This adaptation helps them thrive in their specific habitat, where temporary pools may not be reliable for tadpole development.
Bombay night frog eggs
The Bombay night frog (Nyctibatrachus humayuni) is an endemic species in the Western Ghats. During breeding, males establish their territories on overhanging twigs or leaves above streams, emitting calls to attract females. Females deposit eggs at the calling site, fertilized by the male before he seeks another potential site nearby. This unique pattern replaces traditional amplexus, a mating behaviour wherein the male frog holds the female and fertilizes the eggs as they are laid. Tadpoles hatch after 12–15 days and drop into the stream, where they develop further.
Purple tree crab
In 2016, an arboreal crab species was discovered in India’s forests. Known locally as the purple tree crab (Ghatiana atropurpurea), it has a deep purple shell resembling the jamun fruit it favours. Found mainly on jamun trees, this crab uses its differently sized claw-bearing legs for scavenging. Locals have observed these crabs scavenging road-killed millipedes and snakes with their toothed pincers. Seasonal freshwater creatures, they emerge during the rainy season and seek cool retreats in the summer.
Forest crab
Forest crab (Barusa gracillima) is found in the Western Ghats of India. It inhabits the forest floor, playing a crucial role in the ecosystem by contributing to decomposition and nutrient cycling.
Its presence indicates a healthy forest ecosystem, as it relies on the moist, shaded environment of undisturbed forests. Little detailed information is available on the specific behaviour and ecology of this species because of its elusive nature and the general difficulty in studying small forest-dwelling invertebrates.
Golden emperor moth
The golden emperor moth (Loepa katinka) is found across Asia, including India, China, and Southeast Asia. Females are larger than males, identified by their bushy, feathered antennae and angular forewings. This moth has a wingspan of about 95 mm and a body length of 30 mm. Its wings are yellow with subtle parallel wavy grey markings and prominent eyespots.
Common owl moth
The common owl-moth (Erebus macrops) is found in the subtropical regions of Africa and Asia. It has a wingspan of about 134–160 mm. The forewings have eyespots resembling an owl’s eyes, and the robust body is covered in dark scales matching the wings. This coloration and eyespots provide excellent camouflage against predators on tree bark or leaves.
Amboli day gecko
Geckos are small lizards, and Amboli day gecko (Cnemaspis amboliensis) is a small diurnal gecko native to the Amboli region of Maharashtra in the Western Ghats of India. It has adhesive toe pads for climbing, and its ability to change colour and scale patterns provide camouflage in rocky or forested environments.
White-banded ground gecko
Boulenger’s Indian gecko, or white-banded ground gecko (Cyrtodactylus albofasciatus), is a medium-sized gecko species endemic to India’s Western Ghats. It features distinctive white bands along its body. Nocturnal, it hunts small insects and spiders. During the day, it shelters in crevices or under debris to avoid predators and regulate its temperature. It inhabits moist deciduous forests, tropical rainforests, and sometimes open scrubland.
Giri’s gecko
Giri’s geckoella (Cyrtodactylus varadgirii) is a lizard endemic to India. Discovered in 2016, it was named in honour of scientist Varad Giri. This ground-dwelling lizard is often found on forest leaf litter. It is nocturnal, and hides under logs and rocks during the day.
Indian tiger centipede
The Indian tiger centipede (Scolopendra hardwickei) is commonly found in southern India. It can grow up to 16 cm long and is notable for its striking coloration, featuring alternating dark orange and deep black segments, with dark orange legs.
Jelly fungi
Jelly fungi are a paraphyletic group of heterobasidiomycete fungi. They come in a range of colours, from white to orange to black. Named for their jelly-like, branched fruiting bodies, they are often rubbery and gelatinous. When dried, they harden and shrivel, but rehydrate to their original form when exposed to water. Although many jelly fungi are edible, they often have an unpalatable texture or taste. Poisonous species are rare.
Moulting of Cicada
The final session of our trip was particularly memorable: We witnessed the moulting of a cicada, a rare and fascinating event, and documented the entire process, from its emergence from the cocoon to the final transformation. I have covered this event in another blog post.
Concluding thoughts
The Amboli herping session left me thinking how nature governs even the smallest of things. Every leaf, every pebble, every tiny creature seems to have a role, a purpose, in the ecosystem.
The experience brought to mind Robert Frost’s poem ‘Design’, where he ponders over a small white spider holding a white moth on a white flower—an uncanny convergence of events. Frost questions whether such a specific design is coincidence or speaks to a deeper, darker orchestration of fate.
Similarly, in the forest, I saw the hand of nature in every detail. The camouflage of a gecko, the symbiotic relationships between plants and insects, the survival strategies of reptiles—each aspect mirrored Frost’s contemplation of the meticulous design and nature’s underlying intent.
What brought the kindred spider to that height,
Then steered the white moth thither in the night?
What but design of darkness to appall?—
If design govern in a thing so small.
(Robert Frost, ‘Design’)
The poem’s closing lines echo the thoughts that filled my mind. What unseen forces govern these natural occurrences? What unseen threads tie these life forms together in such harmony and precision?
Leave your queries and comments in the comment box, or email me at paul@endlessexplorer.in. I will be happy to answer them.
Amazing write up with every detail
Tha captures make me virtually sit in front of them